Many theories have been formulated to explain the role of grazers such as zooplankton in controlling the amount of planktonic algae (phytoplankton) in lakes. The first theories of such grazer control were merely based on observations of negative correlations between algal and zooplankton numbers. A low number of algal cells in the presence of a high number of grazers suggested, but did not prove, that the grazers had removed most of the algae. The converse observation, of the absence of grazers in areas of high phytoplankton concentration, led Hardy to propose his principle of animal exclusion, which hypothesized that phytoplankton produced a repellent that excluded grazers from regions of high phytoplankton concentration. This was the first suggestion of algal defenses against grazing.
Perhaps the fact that many of these first studies considered only algae of a size that could be collected in a net (net phytoplankton), a practice that overlooked the smaller phytoplankton (nannoplankton) that we now know grazers are most likely to feed on, led to a de-emphasis of the role of grazers in subsequent research. Increasingly, as in the individual studies of Lund, Round, and Reynolds, researchers began to stress the importance of environmental factors such as temperature, light, and water movements in controlling algal numbers. These environmental factors were amenable to field monitoring and to simulation in the laboratory. Grazing was believed to have some effect on algal numbers, especially after phytoplankton growth rates declined at the end of bloom periods, but grazing was considered a minor component of models that predicted algal population dynamics.
The potential magnitude of grazing pressure on freshwater phytoplankton has only recently been determined empirically. Studies by Hargrave and Geen estimated natural community grazing rates by measuring feeding rates of individual zooplankton species in the laboratory and then computing community grazing rates for field conditions using the known population density of grazers. The high estimates of grazing pressure postulated by these researchers were not fully accepted, however, until the grazing rates of zooplankton were determined directly in the field, by means of new experimental techniques. Using a specially prepared feeding chamber, Haney was able to record zooplankton grazing rates in natural field conditions. In the periods of peak zooplankton abundance, that is, in the late spring and in the summer, Haney recorded maximum daily community grazing rates, for nutrient-poor lakes and bog lakes, respectively, of 6.6 percent and 114 percent of daily phytoplankton production. Cladocerans had higher grazing rates than copepods, usually accounting for 80 percent of the community grazing rate. These rates varied seasonally, reaching the lowest point in the winter and early spring. Haney‘s thorough research provides convincing field evidence that grazers can exert significant pressure on phytoplankton population.
1. It can be inferred from the passage that the "first theories" of grazer control mentioned in the first paragraph would have been more convincing if researchers had been able to
(A) observe high phytoplankton numbers under natural lake conditions
(B) discover negative correlations between algae and zooplankton numbers from their field research
(C) understand the central importance of environmental factors in controlling the growth rates of phytoplankton
(D) make verifiable correlations of cause and effect between zooplankton and phytoplankton numbers
(E) invent laboratory techniques that would have allowed them to bypass their field research concerning grazer control
2. Which of the following, if true, would call into question Hardy‘s principle of animal exclusion?
(A) Zooplankton are not the only organisms that are affected by phytoplankton repellents.
(B) Zooplankton exclusion is unrelated to phytoplankton population density.
(C) Zooplankton population density is higher during some parts of the year than during others.
(D) Net phytoplankton are more likely to exclude zooplankton than are nannoplankton.
(E) Phytoplankton numbers can be strongly affected by environmental factors.
For the following question, consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply
3. The author would be likely to agree with which of the following statements regarding the pressure of grazers on phytoplankton numbers?
(A) Grazing pressure can vary according to the individual type of zooplankton.
(B) Grazing pressure can be lower in nutrient-poor lakes than in bog lakes.
(C) Grazing tends to exert about the same pressure as does temperature.
4. It can be inferred from the passage that one way in which many of the early researchers on grazer control could have improved their data would have been to
(A) emphasize the effects of temperature, rather than of light, on phytoplankton
(B) disregard nannoplankton in their analysis of phytoplankton numbers
(C) collect phytoplankton of all sizes before analyzing the extent of phytoplankton concentration
(D) recognize that phytoplankton other than net phytoplankton could be collected in a net
(E) understand the crucial significance of net phytoplankton in the diet of zooplankton
5. According to the passage, Hargrave and Geen did which of the following in their experiments?
(A) They compared the grazing rates of individual zooplankton species in the laboratory with the natural grazing rates of these species.
(B) The hypothesized about the population density of grazers in natural habitats by using data concerning the population density of grazers in the laboratory.
(C) They estimated the community grazing rates of zooplankton in the laboratory by using data concerning the natural community grazing rates of zooplankton.
(D) They estimated the natural community grazing rates of zooplankton by using data concerning the known population density of phytoplankton.
(E) They estimated the natural community grazing rates of zooplankton by using laboratory data concerning the grazing rates of individual zooplankton species.
結構分析：
第一段：
Many theories have been formulated to explain the role of grazers such as zooplankton in controlling the amount of planktonic algae (phytoplankton) in lakes.
第一句都是給定主題跟方向的，所以必然關切一下，除了有時候說背景我們可以去忽略以外。開頭給出很多理論來解釋Ｇ，然後後面給出舉例倒底這個Ｇ是啥鬼，不過我們依照慣例，抓主幹不過問舉例跟細節， such as看到他請發他好人卡。所以接下來的文體就是針對那個many做文章，可能會有理論一，理論二....，必然如此，沒有萬一或例外，因為如果去反駁他會變成：有個理論說明到Ｇ這個角色扮演，不像是zooplankton，你對舉例做反駁這樣就變成在細節裡面繞圈圈了，他就不是主幹了啊，唯一有可能的事先提出Many theories ，再來作支持或反駁
The first theories of such grazer control were merely based on observations of negative correlations between algal and zooplankton numbers.
條列式的理論一果然出來了，哈抓包，重點在後面，因為GRE是考理工生的，所以把它變成方程式吧：ag= (-) zoo，就是成反比拉，這裡也開始當皮條客囉，開頭主題只說有理論說到Ｇ這個角色扮演，然後理論一就提出來，他的角色扮演是會使得Ａ有數量升降的，把方程式記住之後，ag= (-) zoo，往下
A low number of algal cells in the presence of a high number of grazers suggested, but did not prove, that the grazers had removed most of the algae.
看到這裡A low number of algal就別看了，這是在舉例說明，因為這作者已經開始在拆分了，本句提到A low number，可是剛剛我們討論的是全體之間跟zoo之間的關係啊，所以開始進入細節，請跳過。
The converse observation, of the absence of grazers in areas of high phytoplankton concentration, led Hardy to propose his principle of animal exclusion, which hypothesized that phytoplankton produced a repellent that excluded grazers from regions of high phytoplankton concentration.
看到開頭的紅字也是請跳過以下內容，因為the啊，這是前面說過的東西，只不過用一個逆命題來呈現而已，其中的converse不是啥重點，只是跟上面一句的內容做對比，因此是細節之間的抗衡。
This was the first suggestion of algal defenses against grazing.
哈哈，結尾把那個公式再強調一次，好拉這是草食者第一定律：ag= (-) zoo，ag, zoo >0。
所以第一段只需要細讀前面兩句即可。
第二段：
Perhaps the fact that many of these first studies considered only algae of a size that could be collected in a net (net phytoplankton), a practice that overlooked the smaller phytoplankton (nannoplankton) that we now know grazers are most likely to feed on, led to a de-emphasis of the role of grazers in subsequent research.
遇到長難句怎麼辦，那就是拆了它，炸了他，總不可能叫你老爸幫你開記者會說GRE欺負你，搞不好到時候開了記者會你老爸幫你宣布從此不再考GRE，首先我先把主幹抓出來
Perhaps the fact that many of these first studies considered only algae of a size that could be collected in a net (net phytoplankton), a practice that overlooked the smaller phytoplankton (nannoplankton) that we now know grazers are most likely to feed on, led to a de-emphasis of the role of grazers in subsequent research.
紅色字內容發現這段其實想要翻案，也就是反駁第一段，但是這個先等等，我們先來拆，為何是如此拆呢？？
因為that many of these first studies considered only algae of a size that could be collected in a net (net phytoplankton)這句話是the fact的名詞子句，也就是說fact是一個概念名詞相當於禮物的包裝紙，然後that後面再接上內容物，兩者請打上等號，所以皆可以認知成這個事實，就是那個第一理論只考慮到大小問題，在這裡algae of a size，尺寸很重要，所以蔡頭才會去搞『應該』增大術，繼續拆：
Perhaps the fact that many of these first studies considered only algae of a size that could be collected in a net (net phytoplankton), a practice that overlooked the smaller phytoplankton (nannoplankton) that we now know grazers are most likely to feed on, led to a de-emphasis of the role of grazers in subsequent research.
再來往下看到 尺寸後方that could be collected in a net (net phytoplankton)，這個應該問題不大，就是一個關係代名詞的限定用法來修飾那個AG，就是限定說是可以被網子抓住的阿吉（algae）藻類，好了，那剩下最後囉
Perhaps the fact that many of these first studies considered only algae of a size that could be collected in a net (net phytoplankton), a practice that overlooked the smaller phytoplankton (nannoplankton) that we now know grazers are most likely to feed on, led to a de-emphasis of the role of grazers in subsequent research.
這個又是啥鬼啊，慢慢來，
a practice that overlooked the smaller phytoplankton (nannoplankton) that we now know grazers are most likely to feed on,
這是一個同位語，因為開頭用一個名詞表示而後面也沒再出現動詞去跟practice搭配了，所以這是不完整句，當作同位語修飾前面的整句話，也就是修飾the fact，但你可能會反駁不對啊裡面一堆動詞，怎麼說沒動詞跟練習practice配對呢，嘿嘿，這裡面practice之後出現that子句，這個子句只有that overlooked the smaller phytoplankton (nannoplankton) 這樣，又是一組關係代名詞非限定用法修飾practice，更後面的 that we now know （that） grazers are most likely to feed on這個一組名詞子句，去修飾前方的the smaller phytoplankton，想必應該是亂掉了吧，咱們來從新整理一下。我用顏色來區別：
也許這件事實，阿就是那些第一理論相關研究只考慮到可以從網子抓到的浮游植物阿吉的尺寸的這件事實，成了一種忽略我們現在已知吃草動物喜歡吃的小型浮游植物的舉動，因此完全削弱了在接下來研究當中吃草動物的角色扮演
感覺還是一整個鬼話，但是主幹就是那個紅色部分，其他都是修飾，簡而言之就是：以尺寸來看第一理論是不對的，其中『尺寸』是要看的不然會不知道是哪一個事實，作為反駁第一段的理由，因此草食者公式做定義域上面的修正：ag= (-) zoo，zoo >0，ag > net。
有興趣了結更多名詞子句，以下供參考：
Increasingly, as in the individual studies of Lund, Round, and Reynolds, researchers began to stress the importance of environmental factors such as temperature, light, and water movements in controlling algal numbers.
接下來承接第一句，繼續反駁掉第一段的東西，那這們長的文章必然是要找出既然size會使理論出錯，那是啥麼的東西，所以就來找出反駁點，這裡馬上給出environmental factors，好了數量改變是跟『環境』有關的，這也意味著作者在介紹理論二囉。
These environmental factors were amenable to field monitoring and to simulation in the laboratory.
這裡代名詞出現，跳過，因為沒有轉折直接邏輯承接上一句。
Grazing was believed to have some effect on algal numbers, especially after phytoplankton growth rates declined at the end of bloom periods, but grazing was considered a minor component of models that predicted algal population dynamics.
哇靠莫名其妙岔開話題，Grazing was believed to have some effect on algal numbers剛剛才討論說環境是改變阿吉數量的因素，怎麼現在又說是『覓食』才是原因，沒關係安拉，從後方的especially表示強調，以及那個but表示句內轉折，everything before the word "BUT" is bullshit.所以這純屬煙霧彈，後面還是把邏輯拉回來a minor component of models that predicted algal population dynamics.，表示沒那麼大的影響力。但是作者既然是出GRE的人，不是普通部落客，此轉折必暗藏玄機，一定前後有所關聯，剛剛被嚇到表示前面從未提到，所以必然是承接下一段的內容，讓我們繼續看下去，來驗證看看這個猜想。
第三段：
The potential magnitude of grazing pressure on freshwater phytoplankton has only recently been determined empirically.
沒錯，有接到，ＧＧgrazing的考量是最近才有的，所以表示他在對上面一段的尾巴做轉折喔，minor VS. magnitude，所以這換句話說是作者在此提出的第三種解釋了，複習一下，第一種是數量ag= (-) zoo，第二種是環境，第三種就是覓食。那有必要來看看覓食的細節嗎？我覺得沒必要看了，我已經得到結論了，趕快找轉折詞找一找進入考題還比較實在。
Studies by Hargrave and Geen estimated natural community grazing rates by measuring feeding rates of individual zooplankton species in the laboratory and then computing community grazing rates for field conditions using the known population density of grazers.
舉例，不看了，反正就是H/G證明ＧＧ理論是對的，因為沒有轉折啊，把某某科學家請出來必然是當靠山『支持』用的。
The high estimates of grazing pressure postulated by these researchers were not fully accepted, however, until the grazing rates of zooplankton were determined directly in the field, by means of new experimental techniques.
誇靠ＧＧ理論這麼快就ＧＧ囉，覓食是不行的，因為有however，但是但是後面又在轉一次until，都快轉成七彩霓虹燈了我，他說但是現在有新技術，有新技術能怎樣呢，去證明fully accepted，好了理解完之後就讓它過去吧，還是在細節裡面繞，不重要，因為本句主要邏輯，又被轉回來說ＧＧ可能成立。
Using a specially prepared feeding chamber, Haney was able to record zooplankton grazing rates in natural field conditions.
In the periods of peak zooplankton abundance, that is, in the late spring and in the summer, Haney recorded maximum daily community grazing rates, for nutrient-poor lakes and bog lakes, respectively, of 6.6 percent and 114 percent of daily phytoplankton production.
Cladocerans had higher grazing rates than copepods, usually accounting for 80 percent of the community grazing rate.
These rates varied seasonally, reaching the lowest point in the winter and early spring.
Haney‘s thorough research provides convincing field evidence that grazers can exert significant pressure on phytoplankton population.
再來的這五句話都放下吧，全都是細節訊號字，全都是亨利，沒轉折，做題羅！！阿對了結構圖：
1. It can be inferred from the passage that the "first theories" of grazer control mentioned in the first paragraph would have been more convincing if researchers had been able to
(A) observe high phytoplankton numbers under natural lake conditions
(B) discover negative correlations between algae and zooplankton numbers from their field research
(C) understand the central importance of environmental factors in controlling the growth rates of phytoplankton
(D) make verifiable correlations of cause and effect between zooplankton and phytoplankton numbers
(E) invent laboratory techniques that would have allowed them to bypass their field research concerning grazer control
解題：
這題用推理題的抓主旨招式就解出來了，more convincing表示支持，所以光是發現是不夠的還要證明，再搭配第一段主旨是那個函數『 ag= (-) zoo，ag, zoo >0』。然後函數就是數量變化，兩者關係是相伴的，所以（Ａ）沒有相伴的含義，選（Ｄ）
補充：
if researchers had been able to，表示目標不是第一句的主題句，往後找，我先找到了第二句因為兩個訊號
The first theories of such grazer control were merely based on observations of negative correlations between algal and zooplankton numbers.
A low number of algal cells in the presence of a high number of grazers suggested, but did not prove, that the grazers had removed most of the algae.
接下來對比出現，convincing VS.merely based on observations，第一句話得到對比對象，第二句話中間無任何連接詞視為延續上面一句，所以第二句話內容取反即可，but did not prove,改成可以證明，選（Ｄ）
2. Which of the following, if true, would call into question Hardy‘s principle of animal exclusion?
(A) Zooplankton are not the only organisms that are affected by phytoplankton repellents.
(B) Zooplankton exclusion is unrelated to phytoplankton population density.
(C) Zooplankton population density is higher during some parts of the year than during others.
(D) Net phytoplankton are more likely to exclude zooplankton than are nannoplankton.
(E) Phytoplankton numbers can be strongly affected by environmental factors.
解題：
因為他出現if true所以用批判性推理的結題方式處理會比較恰當，問題就是反駁點（weaken），再來找哈迪哥結論在哪，結論就是當事人認為這件事是對的那句陳述句，所以會有主觀意識存在就是which hypothesized
The converse observation, of the absence of grazers in areas of high phytoplankton concentration, led Hardy to propose his principle of animal exclusion, which hypothesized that phytoplankton produced a repellent that excluded grazers from regions of high phytoplankton concentration.
那weaken怎麼辦，就是把哈迪哥的內容也就是關係代名詞講的東西，phytoplankton produced a repellent，假設質疑成功就是答案，簡單來說就是對phytoplankton produced a repellent取『反』，選（Ｂ）
For the following question, consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply
3. The author would be likely to agree with which of the following statements regarding the pressure of grazers on phytoplankton numbers?
(A) Grazing pressure can vary according to the individual type of zooplankton.
(B) Grazing pressure can be lower in nutrient-poor lakes than in bog lakes.
(C) Grazing tends to exert about the same pressure as does temperature.
解題：
這是the pressure of grazers ，ＧＧ理論，因此先把目光帶到第三段，然後phytoplankton numbers接下來找有數字的，如果不行再說，對應到
In the periods of peak zooplankton abundance, that is, in the late spring and in the summer, Haney recorded maximum daily community grazing rates, for nutrient-poor lakes and bog lakes, respectively, of 6.6 percent and 114 percent of daily phytoplankton production.
Cladocerans had higher grazing rates than copepods, usually accounting for 80 percent of the community grazing rate.
These rates varied seasonally, reaching the lowest point in the winter and early spring.
這裡關鍵字，因為這些內容都是亨利的，而作者提出來放在細節中，即他們倆互相支持該段主題句，抓一下關鍵字（Ａ）（Ｂ）都有了，但是（Ｃ）絕對不能有，因為temperature是在第二段的環境因子裡，段落區間錯了，我在猜他應該是用冬天跟夏天的溫差來混淆，選（Ａ）（Ｂ）
4. It can be inferred from the passage that one way in which many of the early researchers on grazer control could have improved their data would have been to
(A) emphasize the effects of temperature, rather than of light, on phytoplankton
(B) disregard nannoplankton in their analysis of phytoplankton numbers
(C) collect phytoplankton of all sizes before analyzing the extent of phytoplankton concentration
(D) recognize that phytoplankton other than net phytoplankton could be collected in a net
(E) understand the crucial significance of net phytoplankton in the diet of zooplankton
解題：
關鍵字是在那個improved，表示他會是好的理論，然後這時候回想一下，文章的發展是那種先講一個理由之後，接著下一段的開頭說不對喔，剛剛的觀點在某的地方有瑕疵喔，然後才另外說出下一個理論，所以剛剛第一段跟第二段之間是用到size去打槍，然後第二段跟第三段是用new techniques，這兩個文眼，所以不要有size問題，或是要有新技術，它就是答案了，選（Ｃ）
5. According to the passage, Hargrave and Geen did which of the following in their experiments?
(A) They compared the grazing rates of individual zooplankton species in the laboratory with the natural grazing rates of these species.
(B) The hypothesized about the population density of grazers in natural habitats by using data concerning the population density of grazers in the laboratory.
(C) They estimated the community grazing rates of zooplankton in the laboratory by using data concerning the natural community grazing rates of zooplankton.
(D) They estimated the natural community grazing rates of zooplankton by using data concerning the known population density of phytoplankton.
(E) They estimated the natural community grazing rates of zooplankton by using laboratory data concerning the grazing rates of individual zooplankton species.
解題：
內容被限定到第三段的前半部：因為是細節題所以只能用單字連連看一一找對應了。
Studies by Hargrave and Geen estimated natural community grazing rates by measuring feeding rates of individual zooplankton species in the laboratory and then computing community grazing rates for field conditions using the known population density of grazers.
看到評估使得（Ａ）（Ｂ）先剔除，（Ｃ）主詞錯了是natural community當主詞（Ｄ）前半部是and前面的內容，後半部是and後面的內容，標準的拼裝車選項所以剔除，選（Ｅ）
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